HELP
WITH YOUR ENGLISH
Help With Your
Englishのページへようこそ。
このページでは、ご自分が書いた英文の校正方法、技術翻訳者としての腕をさらに磨く方法、その他一般的に英語を上達させる方法についての情報を提供しています。内容は多岐に渡ります。
良い英語を書くには、しっかりした校正が必要です。校正は人に頼むこともできますが、ご自身でもできるのです。どのように英文校正をしたらよいかについて、段階を追って、ヒントを交えて、ご紹介します。
また、句読点の使い方、過剰な単語を用いないための方法、書き方についての文化の相違、性別表現、ビジネスレター例などの英語表現の基本項目もあります。
最後には、技術翻訳についての便利な情報を載せました。技術翻訳は、通常の翻訳とそれほど異なるものではありませんが、覚えておかなければならない2つの点があります。技術翻訳は、技術的内容を扱うので、あいまいではなく、はっきりと説明する必要があるということです。
At ELS, we want to provide you with resources to improve your
writing and your English. We hope the topics below will be helpful.
HELPFUL
LINKS TO IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH
We selected these links because we think they will be the most helpful.
Some of them are well known, and some are not. Although some will be
familiar, you may not have thought about our suggestions. Please take a
look - if you click on a link here, it will open in a separate window.
|
bartleby.com |
www.bartleby.com)
is a wonderful resource site. Our favorite at ELS is Strunk´s
Style (www.bartleby.com/141)
which you can find by selecting the title in the reference window in
the top right corner. This short book provides help for being a better
writer. If you read it, we believe your writing will improve.
|
ALC |
www.alc.co.jp
contains much information, and we often visit the site for the
dictionary there. We imagine you already know about this site and use
it, but we are
putting it here just in case. We also want to give credit where
credit is due.
|
Yahoo!
Groups |
(groups.yahoo.com)
is another well-known site. One way to become a better writer is to
write more. One option for becoming a better writer is to find a group
you like at Yahoo!
Groups and join. Find a group with a topic that interests you. Read
the messages and respond to one or more of them.
|
Yahooligans |
yahooligans.yahoo.com,
the Yahoo site for children, is a good site to visit
and see if you can find something at a comfortable level that is
interesting to read. While
writing practice is important for becoming a better writer, reading
practice is even more important.
When we read, we internalize the
patterns needed for writing. Reading, and lots of it, will make you a
better writer. Working on reading fluency is important. This means
that you should find something you can read without using the
dictionary. If you read regularly, you will steadily improve. When you
find something you like to read without using a dictionary, we suggest
that you read and read and read.
|
Dave´s
ESL Cafe |
Given
that many of us at ELS are teachers, we work in both the professional
and academic worlds. The world of ESL (English as A Second Language)
will have materials that are too easy for you as well as some that may
be of interest, which you can learn from. Dave´s
ESL Cafe (www.eslcafe.com)
is one of the best places to enter the world of ESL. You can find great
quotes in English, slang, and more.
|
SF
Gate |
Given
that we are based in the San Francisco Bay Area, we are including our
hometown link for news and information of the Bay Area. In California,
if anyone asks where you are from and you say the Bay Area, that means
the cities around San Francisco. People as far away as Los Angeles and
San Diego understand this. If you look at SF
Gate www.sfgate.com/
you will find our local newspaper, the San
Francisco Chronicle,
and more. Reading one article each day in an English newspaper such as
the San Francisco Chronicle
will increase your knowledge of
vocabulary, idiomatic expressions, and Western culture.
|
The
Lowell |
You
may not be concerned about our high school newspaper, but you might
find
it interesting to know that the three original ELS founders went to
Lowell High School. In Japan, people pay attention to where
you went to high school, and people past high school age still ask
each other where they went to high school. Americans do not do
that so much, and there are not many famous high schools in America. We
usually go to high school near our house. Lowell
High School,
however, is a magnet high school (academic) and the only elite public
high school in San Francisco, so we are all proud of our high school.
Please take a look at our high school newspaper, The
Lowell (www.thelowell.org/),
if you are interested.
|
Yahoo! |
Everybody
who goes on the Internet, and many who don’t, know Yahoo!
(http://www.yahoo.com/)
which has sites in many countries and many languages. Not everybody,
however, may know how to use
Yahoo to check writing. If you
look at the top of this page, you will see the phrase well
known.
We included the two words for a specific reason. If you look in most
dictionaries you will find well-known,
not well known.
If you want to know how this is really used in
the English-speaking world though, go to Yahoo! and write well
known
in the Yahoo! Search box. Your search will show you how well
known
is used. You will find that many people use a hyphen, but many
people do not. Both are acceptable usages. When you are not sure about
your writing, check Yahoo! to see what is used and what is not. This is
extremely helpful when you proofread your own writing.
|
We also have additional
links that
cover a wide variety of translation, English, and English related
sites. If you cannot find what you want among the sites above, the
sites at additional links might be helpful.
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BASIC
POINTS OF ENGLISH WRITING
1. Sentence length
Make sentences
short enough to be easily understood. Long
sentences become very confusing. Many Japanese sentences need to be
separated into two or more English sentences.
2. Reading
It is
important to read. We improve our writing through
reading. Find good examples of the kind of writing you want to do.
Then, read, read, read, and read some more.
3. Paragraph structure
Paragraphs are
the building blocks of writing. There are
two types: indentation and block. Look at examples in books and
newspapers. Imitate them. A paragraph should not be too long or too
short. Probably somewhere between four and seven sentences is ideal.
See Item #11 below for examples of indentation and block paragraphs.
4. English writing uses single byte characters
Leave the
double byte characters for Japanese.
5. Italics
for non-English words
Italics are
underused. They set items off and make them
easy to see such as laws, rules, and committee names. Italics can also
be used for stress. If a word is in your dictionary, it generally does
not need italics.
Examples:
He
had natto
for breakfast because it
was very healthy.
She had sushi for lunch.
6. Bold
is useful for emphasis.
Example:
She
said, “Although I know it is healthy, I
truly avoid natto
for breakfast and for any other meal.”
7. Overuse of quotation marks
Quotation
marks are used to express the exact words others
have used. We use a quote
when we say who we are quoting. A quote may be from a conversation we
heard
or from an article in a book or newspaper. Laws, rules, or committee
names are not quoted. While quotation marks are often overused, italics
are often underused.
8. Acronyms
Define your
acronyms unless they are commonly known. You
don´t need to define the CIA, but you do need to define CEF
(Citizens
Environmental Foundation).
9. Overuse of capitals
Capitals are
normally used for names and organizations, not
for emphasis. Too many capitals in a document look awkward.
10. Natural English
Language
cannot be grammatically correct if it sounds
awkward and unnatural. Grammatical correctness is above and beyond
textbook rules. Correctness simply sounds natural. Grammar is too
complicated to be limited to a series of rules. Grammar is a living,
changing structure, and no number of rules will ever be able to
describe all aspects of such a structure.
11. Consistency
Writing
consists of a number of accepted practices such as
grammar and syntax, levels of formality, specialized vocabulary, and
choice of paragraph style. The pattern established at the beginning of
a document should continue through the middle and the end.
Example of consistency with an indentation paragraph:
Every
morning I wake up when the sun comes up. Some people are night people
while others are morning people. I am a morning person, so when I wake
up and get up, I am energetic and ready to start my day.
My husband is the opposite. He
likes to wake up
slowly, drink his two cups of coffee, and have a bowl of rice with natto.
After his second cup of coffee, he is usually only half
awake.
Example of consistency with a block paragraph:
Every morning I wake up
when the
sun comes up. Some people are night people while others are morning
people. I am a morning person, so when I wake up and get up, I am
energetic and ready to start my day.
My husband is the opposite. He likes to wake up slowly, drink his two
cups of coffee, and have a bowl of rice with natto.
After his
second cup of coffee, he is usually only half awake.
12. English sentence structure and Japanese sentence structure
Modeling
English writing in Japanese sentence structures
does not work well. If you read English and become more familiar with
its structure, you´ll notice that English word order is very
different from Japanese word order.
13. Spelling
Remember to
proofread your document and use the
spell-checker.
14. The serial comma
The serial
comma is the last comma in a series of commas.
It comes before
the and.
The first example below uses the serial comma and the
second does not.
Example 1: I
like apples, grapes, and
mangos.
Example 2: I
like apples, grapes and mangos.
Some writers use the serial comma and others avoid using it. Those who
use
it believe the last comma makes sentences easier to read. Those who
avoid using it
think the serial comma is unnecessary. In English writing that overuses
the word and,
the serial comma can make the writing easier to
understand. The best approach is to decide whether or not to use
the last comma, and then, be consistent.
15. Dividing words
Although
hyphenating words was previously common, these
days
it is much less common. However, if words are divided, they must be
properly
hyphenated. If you are not sure how they should be divided, check your
dictionary. Remember this when you are putting words into tables. For
example, avoid putting t
on one line and ables
on the
next line.
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A
PUNCTUATION PRIMER
1. Numbers
When numbers
have five or more digits, commas are used to
separate numbers into groups of three, starting from the right. With
four digits, commas are usually used, but they do not have to be.
Periods (full stops) are not used in numbers in American English.
However, in Europe it is normal to use periods instead of commas in
numbers.
Examples:
1234
1,234
1,234,567
2. Quotation marks
Single
quotation marks are used inside double quotation
marks.
Examples:
She
said, “The
students wrote their
names on the form.
One of the students said, ‘I
finished,’
and smiled at me.”
Periods, question marks, and exclamation points always go inside
quotation marks.
Example:
He
said, “I
tried to complete the form.
Is this okay?”
3.
Italics
Titles of
books, movies, and plays are usually italicized
in print.
Examples:
Gone
With the Wind
Anne of Green Gables
The names of ships, aircraft, and spacecraft are usually italicized.
Examples:
Apollo
13
The Spirit of St. Louis
Italics are often used to draw attention to specific words or phrases.
Examples:
The
words affect
and effect
are
often confused.
Pare, pair
and pear
are pronounced exactly the same
way.
4. The semicolon
The semicolon
is used to connect two short
related
independent clauses. It is
usually not used to connect two long
related independent clauses because the sentences become too difficult
to read and understand.
Examples:
I
arrived late;
everyone was waiting for
me.
The soup was hot;
I sat down to eat.
A semicolon is often used to connect items in a series of items
that already contain commas.
Example:
I
thrive on reading classical literature such
as Middlemarch,
set in rural England, by George Elliot;
Sense and Sensibility,
also set in rural England, by Jane
Austin;
and Dr. Zhivago,
an example of historical
fiction, by Boris Pasternak.
A semicolon is used between two
independent clauses that are linked
with either a conjunctive adjective or a transitional phrase.
Example with a conjunctive adjective:
The
car went speeding down the highway;
however, a police officer was following close behind.
Example with a transitional phrase:
We
waited patiently for the film to start;
however, it seemed that the commercials would never end.
5. Ellipsis
An ellipsis
(three dots) expresses an incomplete sentence.
Example:
She
looked at me and said, “I don´t know what
you are thinking and in addition, I feel that you are totally wrong and
....” (The fourth dot is the period at the end of the
sentence.)
An ellipsis indicates that part of the text is missing.
Example:
I
pledge allegiance to the flag of the United
States of America ... and justice for all.
6. The apostrophe
An apostrophe
expresses possession.
An apostrophe placed before s
expresses possession except if
the word ends in s in which case the apostrophe follows the word.
Example:
Jane´s
hat is in the back room.
The Jones´
car is parked in my driveway.
An apostrophe is used to mark contractions.
Example:
He
can´t
figure it out.
7. The dash
A dash is used
to separate items in a list.
Example:
Pizza -
chunks of melted cheese, bits
of black olives, toasted mushrooms, steaming marina sauce -
is
my idea of a perfect snack.
A dash is often used to set off an emphasized part of a sentence.
Example:
The
pizza -
and not the hamburgers that
everyone else had ordered -
took longer to make.
8. A question mark
A question
mark is used after a direct question.
Example:
Where
are we going?
However, a question mark is not used after an indirect question.
Example:
She
asked where we were going.
9. The Period
All sentences
end with a period.
Examples:
I
suggest that you follow the rules.
Don´t make waves.
Periods are used in abbreviations. The requirements for periods after
abbreviations differ according to the abbreviation and British or
American English. Check the dictionary if you are not sure.
Examples:
Ms.
Ph.D.
a.m.
10. The Colon
A colon draws
attention to the words that go after it.
Colons are used to make lists.
Example:
My
vacation was full of fun activities:
swimming, sightseeing, eating, and relaxing.
A colon is used to begin a formal
letter.
Example:
Dear
Madam or Sir:
A colon is sometimes used in place of a comma before a quotation.
Example:
Scarlet
O´Hara raised her fist and said:
“Tomorrow is another day.”
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DO
YOU USE TOO MANY WORDS?
Using unnecessary words - wordiness - weakens good writing. In a
well-written text, every word is necessary. Please look at the
following examples.
1. The first example below uses take as a verb. The second uses
consider, eliminating take, and making a stronger sentence.
I will take your idea into
consideration.
I will consider your idea.
2. The first example here uses a noun plus of.
The second
changes the noun to a gerund, eliminating of,
and making a
stronger sentence.
He mentioned the installation
of the
machinery.
He mentioned installing the machinery.
3. Note that the first example uses a passive sentence, while the
second uses an active sentence. Active sentences use fewer words and
create stronger sentences.
I was told by my teacher to
do my
homework.
My teacher told me to do my homework.
4. Here the first example uses system, an unnecessary word. Words like
system, condition, situation, function, and trends are often used in
writing when
they are not necessary. Only use them when they are necessary. The
second example is shorter and stronger, but has a weak verb, use. The
third example communicates all the information in the first example
with 30 percent of the words.
She uses the online banking
system to
do her banking.
She uses online banking.
She banks online.
5. The phrases below are all wordy.
It is said that . . .
It is certainly true that . . .
It is a fact that . . .
The three phrases are generally unnecessary. They are assumed and do
not need to be written.
6. Writing the Japanese
language is often unnecessary
and adds
useless words. It is Japanese.
The Japanese language needs to
specified only when it may be unclear if the topic is language or
people.
7. Set expressions may often be shortened. In the examples below, it is
important to refer to the investigation. Both sentences are correct,
but the second is better because it is shorter and stronger.
On the basis of our
investigation, we
decided to implement our new business plan.
Based on our investigation, we decided to implement our new business
plan.
On the assumption that
is a similar expression. Use assuming
that.
8. There is nothing wrong with the word of.
However, don´t
overuse it. When possible, remove the extra word. Sometimes of
may make a sentence easier to understand or smoother to read.
The highway was marked at
intervals
of one kilometer.
The highway was marked at one-kilometer intervals.
9. Placed
is a word like make, use,
and take
which can often be eliminated. Again, the second example is stronger
than the first.
From 1997, the avocado
industry was
placed under regulation.
From 1997, the avocado industry was regulated.
10. Various
is another overused word. Compare the two following
sentences. They mean exactly the same thing.
There were various people in
the
office.
There were people in the office.
11. Concretely
is another overused word. There is no difference
between the two examples below. Which one is better?
They concretely planned for
the big
event.
They planned for the big event.
12. Properties
is also an overused word. There is no difference
between the two examples below. They mean exactly the same thing.
Water has wet properties.
Water is wet.
13. Not only is a valid structure, but it is overused, negative, and
wordy. Positive writing is usually stronger than negative writing. Only
use not only when you truly want the emphasis. Note the following
examples.
Not only did she climb Mt.
Everest,
but she bicycled down it.
She climbed up Mt. Everest and bicycled down.
The first example is much better. This was an amazing feat!
Not only did he go to work,
but he
also went home and cooked dinner.
He went to work, went home, and cooked dinner.
The second example is better. There was no need for emphasis.
14. So-called
is an overused and set expression. So-called
puts doubt on the noun that follows it. Use it sparingly.
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CULTURAL
ISSUES
Culture is the rules that we live by, and the rules have both nothing
and everything to do with writing. Here are some helpful hints:
- If a Westerner is
writing to a Japanese person in English and
does not know their gender, then -san is an acceptable suffix. Asking
may
be better than asking someone their gender or making a gender mistake.
Some people are sensitive. However, in general when using English,
Japanese honorifics are not appropriate. English requires English
cultural rules, and Japanese requires Japanese cultural rules.
- Being vulgar in a
second language and doing so appropriately
without offending people is very difficult. Better not to use swear
words in
English.
- Many people
don´t like to be called foreigners in any language.
Being labeled a foreigner says what we are not, not what we are. In
general, people don´t want to be defined as what they are
not. People
want to be defined as what they are. In addition, some people prefer to
think of themselves as members
of the human race or as cosmopolitan and not limited to one
particular country or group.
- Be careful of using
katakana expressions in English, as well as
Japanese social constructs. People with one parent from abroad and one
parent from Japan for example are not half-people. They are whole
people. They can be positively described as having parents from two
different countries or in other ways such as being bi-national or
bi-cultural. While half may make sense in Japan to Japanese people with
two Japanese parents and not bother them, it is rude and bothers people
from other countries.
- If you
don´t know, ask!
- If you are abroad
and don´t know -- watch, ask, or do both.
- Westerners are often
puzzled when Japanese people talk
about being pure Japanese. What does that mean? Are there some Japanese
who are not pure? This is a Japanese social perspective that does not
translate well.
- Japanese people seem
to be praising non-Japanese when they
compliment Westerners on using chopsticks. Often Westerners tire of
hearing
this, especially when they use chopsticks poorly! In addition, many
Westerners have grown up eating Chinese and Japanese food in
restaurants and are quite comfortable with chopsticks.
- Don´t be
overly modest or negative about yourself. While this may
sound polite in Japanese, it does not in English.
- What do you want to
be called? Tell people. If you are flexible,
say so. If you would rather be called by your first name or a nickname,
say so. If you would rather be called by your last name, say so. When
you are uncertain, ask other people what they would like to be called.
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GENDER
INCLUSIVE WRITING
Gender inclusive language has become the standard in most professional
and colloquial writing in English. From general news publications such
as the San Francisco Chronicle
to professional and academic
institutions such as the American Psychological Association and the
University of California, gender inclusive language has become the
accepted pattern.
Guidelines for Gender Inclusive Writing:
When possible, use the plural form of a noun.
Examples:
Avoid:
The regular employee
wants to do his best work each day.
Standard:
Regular employees want to do their best work each
day.
Avoid:
Each person wants his vote to be counted on election
day.
Standard:
All people want their votes to be counted on
election day.
Another approach is to eliminate pronouns.
Example:
Avoid:
The average worker is
concerned about her income.
Standard:
The average worker is concerned about income.
Do not refer to females
or males
unless the writing
topic applies to one gender only.
She or He:
Double pronoun forms such as she
or he and s/he
are
sometimes used. Although used in numerous situations, we at ELS avoid
the double forms in that they seem clumsy. We prefer the plural
approach.
General
Terms
Avoid
Mankind
Man-made
Man-hours
The best man for the job |
Use
Humans, human beings, people
Manufactured, handmade
Work hours
The best person for the job |
Employment
Terms
Avoid
Policeman
Fireman
Stewardess
Chairman
Mailman |
Use
Police officer
Firefighter
Flight attendant
Chair
Mail carrier |
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SAMPLE
BUSINESS LETTER
The example below is a business letter written in an American style.
Although there
are many possible ways to write a business letter, the example below is
typical. The block writing style makes the letter formal, something
you would send to a person you have not actually met or do not know.
The date is generally on the left or in the middle directly under your
letterhead. The date can also be on the right, but for style
purposes, it is now more common to line it up on the left. Staying on
the left, and using one line for each item, you then write the
addressee's full name,
business title if known, company name,
street address, city, state, and zip code. If the addressee is abroad,
include the country name. Skip a
line and then insert Dear...,
followed by a colon. Skip another line and begin your letter. Close
with Sincerely
or Very Truly Yours
(more formal); leave
space for your signature. Then type your name and, if
appropriate, your business title.
Please note that this is an American style. The rules are slightly
different for British English. Please see the bottom of this section
for British English.
Excom-System
Language Services
Bringing
You
Clear English Communication
May 30,
2004
Ms. Hanako Suzuki, Director
HSP Consulting Group
Ekimae 3-25-2
Bunkyo Ward
Tokyo 100-0001
Dear Ms. Suzuki:
Thank you very much for your letter. We were pleased to hear that
our writing work served you well. Congratulations on your new
account with Hanawa Enterprises. Given these tough economic times, your
new account is a cause for celebration.
We wish you the very best and look forward to serving you in the future.
Thank you for your patronage.
Sincerely,
[hand-written
signature]
Mary Smith
Account Manager
|
If you are writing to someone in the UK, Canada, or other English
speaking country outside the US, punctuation after Dear
[Name], and after Mr, Mrs, Ms,
or Dr, is not used.
If you are writing to someone you don't know [Dear Sir or Madam] you
end with:
Yours faithfully
(no comma here)
Your signature and name as above.
If you are writing to someone whose name you know, you close your
letter with: Yours truly
(no comma) followed by your signature
and name.
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TECHNICAL
WRITING
If you are a technical writer and would like to read texts that will
help you improve your technical writing, ELS suggests buying two books.
These books are written for native English speakers, but they can
provide much help to nonnative English speakers. The two books are:
- The
Technical Writer´s Handbook
by Matt Young
- Clear
Technical Writing by John A.
Brogan
The Technical
Writer´s Handbook is
the cheaper book of the two.
You can find it new at Amazon.com
for $19.50. Young´s book has
two parts. In a short introduction, Young explains three basic rules
for
technical writing.
1. Write the
way you talk; then polish
Young explains that we must first get our ideas written down. The next
task is to edit them and polish the already written ideas. Polishing
includes rereading the
writing and eliminating long, complicated sentences.
For a translator the rule could be changed to the following:
Translate the original; then polish the translation.
2. Write one thought per sentence
Young explains that we do not want to put too much information into a
small space. Write one thought in the first sentence, and the next
thought can go into the next sentence. The sentences then flow, one
after another, like ocean waves.
Young adds a corollary to Rule 2.
2a. Be explicit
Young explains that everything should be written so readers understand.
The
task of readers is to read, not to infer. Important facts should be
easy to see, not hidden away.
3. Write for the uninformed
reader
Young explains that technical writing is often complicated. Technical
writing should
be completed so intelligent, but not knowledgeable, readers can
understand. In technical writing, each point requires adequate
explanation.
Then, in the second part of the book, Young has his ABC of Technical
writing. You can check any areas of uncertainty. If you look up in
view of the fact that you will
find the word because.
Young, like many others, is against wordiness!
Clear Technical Writing
by John A. Brogan is expensive, but
worth the investment. You can find it new at Amazon.com
for
$87.65 or used from $16.00. Brogan has written a very helpful book with
both instruction and exercises. The table of contents below shows the
important areas
that Brogan discusses. You can find many of these areas addressed
in other writing books and some on parts of our website. Still, no
matter how many authors and websites provide such helpful advice,
writers continue to make the same mistakes. Study Brogan´s
book and we
believe you
will make fewer mistakes.
Part 1.
REMOVING REDUNDANCIES
Chapter 1. Technical Terms
Chapter 2. Mostly Nontechnical Words
Chapter 3. Function Words, Verbs, and Long Redundancies
PART II. UNLEASHING VERB POWER
Chapter 4. Preferring Active Voice
Chapter 5. Replacing Weak Verbs: “Be,”
“Do,” “Make”
Chapter 6. Other Weak Verbs
Chapter 7. Developing Other Verb Forms
PART III. USING LEAN WORDS
Chapter 8. Lightweight Function Words and Words of Quantity and
of Time
Chapter 9. Lean Verbs
Chapter 10. Auxiliary Verbs
Chapter 11. Other Ponderous Writing
PART IV. STRESSING WHAT IS IMPORTANT
Chapter 12. Releasing Verbs: Eliminating
“It” and “There”
Chapter 13. Being Personal or Being Impersonal
Chapter 14. Punctuation
Chapter 15. Emphasizing and Subordinating
Chapter 16. Lightening Unit Modifiers and Locating Modifiers
Effectively
Please note that this book was originally written in 1973. Still, most
of the information is as true today as it was then. You can also see
that Brogan speaks out against wordiness.
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