翻訳 ( 英語 英日 日英翻訳 )、英文校正、英作文添削、講座、多言語翻訳、多言語校正、英文ライティング指導

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HELP WITH YOUR ENGLISH     CLICK FOR JAPANESE PAGE

英語翻訳、英文校正サービス早わかりサイトバナー

Help With Your Englishのページへようこそ。

イルカ
By
Vlad Butsky (CC)
このページでは、ご自分が書いた英文の校正方法、技術翻訳者としての腕をさらに磨く方法、その他一般的に英語を上達させる方法についての情報を提供しています。内容は多岐に渡ります。

良い英語を書くには、しっかりした校正が必要です。校正は人に頼むこともできますが、ご自身でもできるのです。どのように英文校正をしたらよいかについて、段階を追って、ヒントを交えて、ご紹介します。

また、句読点の使い方、過剰な単語を用いないための方法、書き方についての文化の相違、性別表現、ビジネスレター例などの英語表現の基本項目もあります。

最後には、技術翻訳についての便利な情報を載せました。技術翻訳は、通常の翻訳とそれほど異なるものではありませんが、覚えておかなければならない2つの点があります。技術翻訳は、技術的内容を扱うので、あいまいではなく、はっきりと説明する必要があるということです。

At ELS, we want to provide you with resources to improve your writing and your English. We hope the topics below will be helpful.

サッカー
By Woodley
Wonderworks (CC)




HELPFUL LINKS TO IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH

We selected these links because we think they will be the most helpful. Some of them are well known, and some are not. Although some will be familiar, you may not have thought about our suggestions. Please take a look - if you click on a link here, it will open in a separate window.

bartleby.com   www.bartleby.com) is a wonderful resource site. Our favorite at ELS is Strunk´s Style (www.bartleby.com/141) which you can find by selecting the title in the reference window in the top right corner. This short book provides help for being a better writer. If you read it, we believe your writing will improve.

ALC www.alc.co.jp contains much information, and we often visit the site for the dictionary there. We imagine you already know about this site and use it, but we are putting it here just in case. We also want to give credit where credit is due.

Yahoo! Groups (groups.yahoo.com) is another well-known site. One way to become a better writer is to write more. One option for becoming a better writer is to find a group you like at Yahoo! Groups and join. Find a group with a topic that interests you. Read the messages and respond to one or more of them.

Yahooligans yahooligans.yahoo.com, the Yahoo site for children, is a good site to visit and see if you can find something at a comfortable level that is interesting to read. While writing practice is important for becoming a better writer, reading practice is even more important. When we read, we internalize the patterns needed for writing. Reading, and lots of it, will make you a better writer. Working on reading fluency is important. This means that you should find something you can read without using the dictionary. If you read regularly, you will steadily improve. When you find something you like to read without using a dictionary, we suggest that you read and read and read.

Dave´s ESL Cafe Given that many of us at ELS are teachers, we work in both the professional and academic worlds. The world of ESL (English as A Second Language) will have materials that are too easy for you as well as some that may be of interest, which you can learn from. Dave´s ESL Cafe (www.eslcafe.com) is one of the best places to enter the world of ESL. You can find great quotes in English, slang, and more.

SF Gate Given that we are based in the San Francisco Bay Area, we are including our hometown link for news and information of the Bay Area. In California, if anyone asks where you are from and you say the Bay Area, that means the cities around San Francisco. People as far away as Los Angeles and San Diego understand this. If you look at SF Gate www.sfgate.com/ you will find our local newspaper, the San Francisco Chronicle, and more. Reading one article each day in an English newspaper such as the San Francisco Chronicle will increase your knowledge of vocabulary, idiomatic expressions, and Western culture.

The Lowell You may not be concerned about our high school newspaper, but you might find it interesting to know that the three original ELS founders went to Lowell High School. In Japan, people pay attention to where you went to high school, and people past high school age still ask each other where they went to high school. Americans do not do that so much, and there are not many famous high schools in America. We usually go to high school near our house. Lowell High School, however, is a magnet high school (academic) and the only elite public high school in San Francisco, so we are all proud of our high school. Please take a look at our high school newspaper, The Lowell (www.thelowell.org/), if you are interested.

Yahoo! Everybody who goes on the Internet, and many who don’t, know Yahoo! (http://www.yahoo.com/) which has sites in many countries and many languages. Not everybody, however, may know how to use Yahoo to check writing. If you look at the top of this page, you will see the phrase well known. We included the two words for a specific reason. If you look in most dictionaries you will find well-known, not well known. If you want to know how this is really used in the English-speaking world though, go to Yahoo! and write well known in the Yahoo! Search box. Your search will show you how well known is used. You will find that many people use a hyphen, but many people do not. Both are acceptable usages. When you are not sure about your writing, check Yahoo! to see what is used and what is not. This is extremely helpful when you proofread your own writing.

We also have additional links that cover a wide variety of translation, English, and English related sites. If you cannot find what you want among the sites above, the sites at additional links might be helpful.

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BASIC POINTS OF ENGLISH WRITING

1. Sentence length
Make sentences short enough to be easily understood. Long sentences become very confusing. Many Japanese sentences need to be separated into two or more English sentences.
2. Reading
It is important to read. We improve our writing through reading. Find good examples of the kind of writing you want to do. Then, read, read, read, and read some more.
3. Paragraph structure
Paragraphs are the building blocks of writing. There are two types: indentation and block. Look at examples in books and newspapers. Imitate them. A paragraph should not be too long or too short. Probably somewhere between four and seven sentences is ideal. See Item #11 below for examples of indentation and block paragraphs.
4. English writing uses single byte characters
Leave the double byte characters for Japanese.
5. Italics for non-English words
Italics are underused. They set items off and make them easy to see such as laws, rules, and committee names. Italics can also be used for stress. If a word is in your dictionary, it generally does not need italics.

Examples:
He had natto for breakfast because it was very healthy.
She had sushi for lunch.
6. Bold is useful for emphasis.
Example:
She said, “Although I know it is healthy, I truly avoid natto for breakfast and for any other meal.”
7. Overuse of quotation marks
Quotation marks are used to express the exact words others have used. We use a quote when we say who we are quoting. A quote may be from a conversation we heard or from an article in a book or newspaper. Laws, rules, or committee names are not quoted. While quotation marks are often overused, italics are often underused.
8. Acronyms
Define your acronyms unless they are commonly known. You don´t need to define the CIA, but you do need to define CEF (Citizens Environmental Foundation).
9. Overuse of capitals
Capitals are normally used for names and organizations, not for emphasis. Too many capitals in a document look awkward.
10. Natural English
Language cannot be grammatically correct if it sounds awkward and unnatural. Grammatical correctness is above and beyond textbook rules. Correctness simply sounds natural. Grammar is too complicated to be limited to a series of rules. Grammar is a living, changing structure, and no number of rules will ever be able to describe all aspects of such a structure.
11. Consistency
Writing consists of a number of accepted practices such as grammar and syntax, levels of formality, specialized vocabulary, and choice of paragraph style. The pattern established at the beginning of a document should continue through the middle and the end.

Example of consistency with an indentation paragraph:
    Every morning I wake up when the sun comes up. Some people are night people while others are morning people. I am a morning person, so when I wake up and get up, I am energetic and ready to start my day.

    My husband is the opposite. He likes to wake up slowly, drink his two cups of coffee, and have a bowl of rice with natto. After his second cup of coffee, he is usually only half awake.  

Example of consistency with a block paragraph:
Every morning I wake up when the sun comes up. Some people are night people while others are morning people. I am a morning person, so when I wake up and get up, I am energetic and ready to start my day.

My husband is the opposite. He likes to wake up slowly, drink his two cups of coffee, and have a bowl of rice with natto. After his second cup of coffee, he is usually only half awake.
12. English sentence structure and Japanese sentence structure
Modeling English writing in Japanese sentence structures does not work well. If you read English and become more familiar with its structure, you´ll notice that English word order is very different from Japanese word order.
13. Spelling
Remember to proofread your document and use the spell-checker.
14. The serial comma
The serial comma is the last comma in a series of commas. It comes before the and. The first example below uses the serial comma and the second does not.

Example 1:  I like apples, grapes, and mangos.
Example 2:  I like apples, grapes and mangos.

Some writers use the serial comma and others avoid using it. Those who use it believe the last comma makes sentences easier to read. Those who avoid using it think the serial comma is unnecessary. In English writing that overuses the word and, the serial comma can make the writing easier to understand. The best approach is to decide whether or not to use the last comma, and then, be consistent.
15. Dividing words
Although hyphenating words was previously common, these days it is much less common. However, if words are divided, they must be properly hyphenated. If you are not sure how they should be divided, check your dictionary. Remember this when you are putting words into tables. For example, avoid putting t on one line and ables on the next line.
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A PUNCTUATION PRIMER


1. Numbers
When numbers have five or more digits, commas are used to separate numbers into groups of three, starting from the right. With four digits, commas are usually used, but they do not have to be. Periods (full stops) are not used in numbers in American English. However, in Europe it is normal to use periods instead of commas in numbers.
Examples:
1234
1,234
1,234,567
2. Quotation marks
Single quotation marks are used inside double quotation marks.
Examples:
She said, The students wrote their names on the form.
One of the students said, I finished, and smiled at me.


Periods, question marks, and exclamation points always go inside quotation marks.
Example:
He said, I tried to complete the form. Is this okay?”
3. Italics
Titles of books, movies, and plays are usually italicized in print.
Examples:
Gone With the Wind
Anne of Green Gables


The names of ships, aircraft, and spacecraft are usually italicized.
Examples:
Apollo 13
The Spirit of St. Louis


Italics are often used to draw attention to specific words or phrases.
Examples:
The words affect and effect are often confused.
Pare, pair and pear are pronounced exactly the same way.
4. The semicolon
The semicolon is used to connect two short related independent clauses. It is usually not used to connect two long related independent clauses because the sentences become too difficult to read and understand.
Examples:
I arrived late; everyone was waiting for me.
The soup was hot; I sat down to eat.


A semicolon is often used to connect items in a series of items that already contain commas.
Example:
I thrive on reading classical literature such as Middlemarch, set in rural England, by George Elliot;
Sense and Sensibility, also set in rural England, by Jane Austin; and Dr. Zhivago, an example of historical fiction, by Boris Pasternak.


A semicolon is used between two independent clauses that are linked with either a conjunctive adjective or a transitional phrase.
Example with a conjunctive adjective:
The car went speeding down the highway; however, a police officer was following close behind.

Example with a transitional phrase:
We waited patiently for the film to start; however, it seemed that the commercials would never end.
5. Ellipsis
An ellipsis (three dots) expresses an incomplete sentence.
Example:
She looked at me and said, “I don´t know what you are thinking and in addition, I feel that you are totally wrong and ....” (The fourth dot is the period at the end of the sentence.)

An ellipsis indicates that part of the text is missing.
Example:
I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States of America ... and justice for all.
6. The apostrophe
An apostrophe expresses possession.
An apostrophe placed before s expresses possession except if the word ends in s in which case the apostrophe follows the word.
Example:
Jane´s hat is in the back room.
The Jones´ car is parked in my driveway.


An apostrophe is used to mark contractions.
Example:
He can´t figure it out.
7. The dash
A dash is used to separate items in a list.
Example:
Pizza - chunks of melted cheese, bits of black olives, toasted mushrooms, steaming marina sauce - is my idea of a perfect snack.

A dash is often used to set off an emphasized part of a sentence.
Example:
The pizza - and not the hamburgers that everyone else had ordered - took longer to make.
8. A question mark
A question mark is used after a direct question.
Example:
Where are we going?

However, a question mark is not used after an indirect question.
Example:
She asked where we were going.
9. The Period
All sentences end with a period.
Examples:
I suggest that you follow the rules.
Don´t make waves.


Periods are used in abbreviations. The requirements for periods after abbreviations differ according to the abbreviation and British or American English. Check the dictionary if you are not sure.
Examples:
Ms.
Ph.D.
a.m.
10. The Colon
A colon draws attention to the words that go after it. Colons are used to make lists.
Example:
My vacation was full of fun activities: swimming, sightseeing, eating, and relaxing.

A colon is used to begin a formal letter.
Example:
Dear Madam or Sir:

A colon is sometimes used in place of a comma before a quotation.
Example:
Scarlet O´Hara raised her fist and said: “Tomorrow is another day.”
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DO YOU USE TOO MANY WORDS?


Using unnecessary words - wordiness - weakens good writing. In a well-written text, every word is necessary. Please look at the following examples.

1. The first example below uses take as a verb. The second uses consider, eliminating take, and making a stronger sentence.
I will take your idea into consideration.
I will consider your idea.
2. The first example here uses a noun plus of. The second changes the noun to a gerund, eliminating of, and making a stronger sentence.
He mentioned the installation of the machinery.
He mentioned installing the machinery.
3. Note that the first example uses a passive sentence, while the second uses an active sentence. Active sentences use fewer words and create stronger sentences.
I was told by my teacher to do my homework.
My teacher told me to do my homework.
4. Here the first example uses system, an unnecessary word. Words like system, condition, situation, function, and trends are often used in writing when they are not necessary. Only use them when they are necessary. The second example is shorter and stronger, but has a weak verb, use. The third example communicates all the information in the first example with 30 percent of the words.
She uses the online banking system to do her banking.
She uses online banking.
She banks online.
5. The phrases below are all wordy.
It is said that . . .
It is certainly true that . . .
It is a fact that . . .
The three phrases are generally unnecessary. They are assumed and do not need to be written.

6. Writing the Japanese language is often unnecessary and adds useless words. It is Japanese. The Japanese language needs to specified only when it may be unclear if the topic is language or people.

7. Set expressions may often be shortened. In the examples below, it is important to refer to the investigation. Both sentences are correct, but the second is better because it is shorter and stronger.
On the basis of our investigation, we decided to implement our new business plan.
Based on our investigation, we decided to implement our new business plan.
On the assumption that is a similar expression. Use assuming that.

8. There is nothing wrong with the word of. However, don´t overuse it. When possible, remove the extra word. Sometimes of may make a sentence easier to understand or smoother to read.
The highway was marked at intervals of one kilometer.
The highway was marked at one-kilometer intervals.

9. Placed is a word like make, use, and take which can often be eliminated. Again, the second example is stronger than the first.
From 1997, the avocado industry was placed under regulation.
From 1997, the avocado industry was regulated.

10. Various is another overused word. Compare the two following sentences. They mean exactly the same thing.
There were various people in the office.
There were people in the office.

11. Concretely is another overused word. There is no difference between the two examples below. Which one is better?
They concretely planned for the big event.
They planned for the big event.

12. Properties is also an overused word. There is no difference between the two examples below. They mean exactly the same thing.
Water has wet properties.
Water is wet.
13. Not only is a valid structure, but it is overused, negative, and wordy. Positive writing is usually stronger than negative writing. Only use not only when you truly want the emphasis. Note the following examples.
Not only did she climb Mt. Everest, but she bicycled down it.
She climbed up Mt. Everest and bicycled down.
The first example is much better. This was an amazing feat!
Not only did he go to work, but he also went home and cooked dinner.
He went to work, went home, and cooked dinner.
The second example is better. There was no need for emphasis.

14. So-called is an overused and set expression. So-called puts doubt on the noun that follows it. Use it sparingly.

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CULTURAL ISSUES

Culture is the rules that we live by, and the rules have both nothing and everything to do with writing. Here are some helpful hints:

  1. If a Westerner is writing to a Japanese person in English and does not know their gender, then -san is an acceptable suffix. Asking may be better than asking someone their gender or making a gender mistake. Some people are sensitive. However, in general when using English, Japanese honorifics are not appropriate. English requires English cultural rules, and Japanese requires Japanese cultural rules.

  2. Being vulgar in a second language and doing so appropriately without offending people is very difficult. Better not to use swear words in English.

  3. Many people don´t like to be called foreigners in any language. Being labeled a foreigner says what we are not, not what we are. In general, people don´t want to be defined as what they are not. People want to be defined as what they are. In addition, some people prefer to think of themselves as members of the human race or as cosmopolitan and not limited to one particular country or group.

  4. Be careful of using katakana expressions in English, as well as Japanese social constructs. People with one parent from abroad and one parent from Japan for example are not half-people. They are whole people. They can be positively described as having parents from two different countries or in other ways such as being bi-national or bi-cultural. While half may make sense in Japan to Japanese people with two Japanese parents and not bother them, it is rude and bothers people from other countries.

  5. If you don´t know, ask!

  6. If you are abroad and don´t know -- watch, ask, or do both.

  7. Westerners are often puzzled when Japanese people talk about being pure Japanese. What does that mean? Are there some Japanese who are not pure? This is a Japanese social perspective that does not translate well.

  8. Japanese people seem to be praising non-Japanese when they compliment Westerners on using chopsticks. Often Westerners tire of hearing this, especially when they use chopsticks poorly! In addition, many Westerners have grown up eating Chinese and Japanese food in restaurants and are quite comfortable with chopsticks.

  9. Don´t be overly modest or negative about yourself. While this may sound polite in Japanese, it does not in English.

  10. What do you want to be called? Tell people. If you are flexible, say so. If you would rather be called by your first name or a nickname, say so. If you would rather be called by your last name, say so. When you are uncertain, ask other people what they would like to be called.
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GENDER INCLUSIVE WRITING

Gender inclusive language has become the standard in most professional and colloquial writing in English. From general news publications such as the San Francisco Chronicle to professional and academic institutions such as the American Psychological Association and the University of California, gender inclusive language has become the accepted pattern.

Guidelines for Gender Inclusive Writing:

When possible, use the plural form of a noun.
Examples:
Avoid: The regular employee wants to do his best work each day.
Standard: Regular employees want to do their best work each day.

Avoid: Each person wants his vote to be counted on election day.
Standard: All people want their votes to be counted on election day.
Another approach is to eliminate pronouns.
Example:
Avoid: The average worker is concerned about her income.
Standard: The average worker is concerned about income.
Do not refer to females or males unless the writing topic applies to one gender only.

She or He:
Double pronoun forms such as she or he and s/he are sometimes used. Although used in numerous situations, we at ELS avoid the double forms in that they seem clumsy. We prefer the plural approach.

General Terms
Avoid
Mankind
Man-made
Man-hours
The best man for the job    

Use
Humans, human beings, people
Manufactured, handmade
Work hours
The best person for the job
Employment Terms
Avoid
Policeman
Fireman
Stewardess
Chairman
Mailman

Use
Police officer
Firefighter
Flight attendant
Chair
Mail carrier

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SAMPLE BUSINESS LETTER

The example below is a business letter written in an American style. Although there are many possible ways to write a business letter, the example below is typical. The block writing style makes the letter formal, something you would send to a person you have not actually met or do not know.

The date is generally on the left or in the middle directly under your letterhead. The date can also be on the right, but for style purposes, it is now more common to line it up on the left. Staying on the left, and using one line for each item, you then write the addressee's full name, business title if known, company name, street address, city, state, and zip code. If the addressee is abroad, include the country name. Skip a line and then insert Dear..., followed by a colon. Skip another line and begin your letter. Close with Sincerely or Very Truly Yours (more formal); leave space for your signature. Then type your name and, if appropriate, your business title.

Please note that this is an American style. The rules are slightly different for British English. Please see the bottom of this section for British English.

Excom-System Language Services
Bringing You Clear English Communication


May 30, 2004

Ms. Hanako Suzuki, Director
HSP Consulting Group
Ekimae 3-25-2
Bunkyo Ward
Tokyo 100-0001

Dear Ms. Suzuki:

Thank you very much for your letter. We were pleased to hear that our writing work served you well. Congratulations on your new account with Hanawa Enterprises. Given these tough economic times, your new account is a cause for celebration.

We wish you the very best and look forward to serving you in the future.

Thank you for your patronage.

Sincerely,

     [hand-written signature]

Mary Smith
Account Manager



If you are writing to someone in the UK, Canada, or other English speaking country outside the US, punctuation after Dear [Name], and after Mr, Mrs, Ms, or Dr, is not used.

If you are writing to someone you don't know [Dear Sir or Madam] you end with:
Yours faithfully (no comma here)
Your signature and name as above.

If you are writing to someone whose name you know, you close your letter with: Yours truly (no comma) followed by your signature and name.

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TECHNICAL WRITING

If you are a technical writer and would like to read texts that will help you improve your technical writing, ELS suggests buying two books. These books are written for native English speakers, but they can provide much help to nonnative English speakers. The two books are:

  • The Technical Writer´s Handbook by Matt Young
  • Clear Technical Writing by John A. Brogan
The Technical Writer´s Handbook is the cheaper book of the two. You can find it new at Amazon.com for $19.50. Young´s book has two parts. In a short introduction, Young explains three basic rules for technical writing.
1. Write the way you talk; then polish
Young explains that we must first get our ideas written down. The next task is to edit them and polish the already written ideas. Polishing includes rereading the writing and eliminating long, complicated sentences.

For a translator the rule could be changed to the following: Translate the original; then polish the translation.

2. Write one thought per sentence
Young explains that we do not want to put too much information into a small space. Write one thought in the first sentence, and the next thought can go into the next sentence. The sentences then flow, one after another, like ocean waves.

Young adds a corollary to Rule 2.
2a. Be explicit
Young explains that everything should be written so readers understand. The task of readers is to read, not to infer. Important facts should be easy to see, not hidden away.

3. Write for the uninformed reader
Young explains that technical writing is often complicated. Technical writing should be completed so intelligent, but not knowledgeable, readers can understand. In technical writing, each point requires adequate explanation.

Then, in the second part of the book, Young has his ABC of Technical writing. You can check any areas of uncertainty. If you look up in view of the fact that you will find the word because. Young, like many others, is against wordiness!
Clear Technical Writing by John A. Brogan is expensive, but worth the investment. You can find it new at Amazon.com for $87.65 or used from $16.00. Brogan has written a very helpful book with both instruction and exercises. The table of contents below shows the important areas that Brogan discusses. You can find many of these areas addressed in other writing books and some on parts of our website. Still, no matter how many authors and websites provide such helpful advice, writers continue to make the same mistakes. Study Brogan´s book and we believe you will make fewer mistakes.

Part 1. REMOVING REDUNDANCIES
Chapter 1. Technical Terms
Chapter 2. Mostly Nontechnical Words
Chapter 3. Function Words, Verbs, and Long Redundancies

PART II. UNLEASHING VERB POWER
Chapter 4. Preferring Active Voice
Chapter 5. Replacing Weak Verbs: “Be,” “Do,” “Make”
Chapter 6. Other Weak Verbs
Chapter 7. Developing Other Verb Forms

PART III. USING LEAN WORDS
Chapter 8. Lightweight Function Words and Words of Quantity and of Time
Chapter 9. Lean Verbs
Chapter 10. Auxiliary Verbs
Chapter 11. Other Ponderous Writing

PART IV. STRESSING WHAT IS IMPORTANT
Chapter 12.  Releasing Verbs: Eliminating “It” and “There”
Chapter 13.  Being Personal or Being Impersonal
Chapter 14.  Punctuation
Chapter 15.  Emphasizing and Subordinating
Chapter 16.  Lightening Unit Modifiers and Locating Modifiers Effectively

Please note that this book was originally written in 1973. Still, most of the information is as true today as it was then. You can also see that Brogan speaks out against wordiness.

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エクスコムシステム ランゲージ サービス

翻訳、校正などの代表者連絡先 : honyaku@excom-system.com

提携先:Aaron Language Services
アーロン ランゲージ サービス ( ALS )
San Francisco, CA
USA
サンフランシスコ市発行 営業ライセンス番号:388028 001 07

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各種論文のグローバル発信の重要性が求められる現状では、いかに優れた論文でも、翻訳する場合は当然、翻訳者の知識力、技量が必須です。ELSでは、論文翻訳もサポートいたします。医療論文 ( 医学論文 )、小児科論文、看護論文、卒業論文、法律論文、観光論文、科学論文を始め、環境、半導体、自動車の技術 ・ 研究論文、経済、政治、歴史、社会学、文学、ビジネス等多岐にわたる学術論文において、各分野での専門知識を持った翻訳者やネイティブが翻訳、校正を担当いたします。各分野の日英論文翻訳はELSにお任せください。ご希望にそった英語論文に仕上げます。英語論文の書き方についても専門家が対応いたします。

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